1960s and 1970s Electric Car Bibliography

While serious scholarship has been done on the early history of electric vehicles in America -- see, for example, books by Gijs Mom and David Krisch -- the critical period of the 1960s and 1970s related to the electric car, technological developments, and government support, remains uncharted territory. Even before Oil Shocks I and II, serious scientific and engineering work was being done on the electric car using new battery technologies, motors, and electrical controllers, and yet this work was put on a shelf after the early 1980s. But now the GM Volt is nearing introduction, and great claims are made for it as cutting edge technology. Will the Volt be accepted by consumers? What will the government do to artificially raise gasoline prices so that electric cars will be attractive to the marketplace? Is the Volt going to be merely a flash in the pan? What will cars of the future look like?

I have assembled a working bibliography on the electric car and its history during the 1960s and 1970s, and want to share it with you. Perhaps you are interested in this topic, or perhaps you want to follow up on some or all of the sources.


Appelt, Suzanne. Electric Vehicles, a Bibliography, 1928 -1966. Portland, Oregon: Bonneville Power Administration, 1966.

Bates, Bradford, Ed. Electric Vehicles: A Decade of Transition. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1992.

Beggs, S.D. The Demand for Electric Automobiles. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, 1981.

Butterworth, W.E. Dave White & the Electric Wonder Car. New York: Four Winds Press, 1974.

Bureau of Transport Economics. Electric Cars. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1974.

Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. The Electric Vehicle – An Alternative to the Gasoline-Powered Car. NP: n.p., 1975?

Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Act, Public Law 94-413 Demonstration Program Objective
and Schedule. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Advanced Energy Technologies and Energy Conservation Research, Development and Demonstration. 95th Congress, First Session, July 12, 1977. Washington: GPO, 1978.

Electric Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration act of 1975.
Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Commerce, United States Senate, 94th Congress, First Session, on S. 1632 and H.R. 880. Washington: GPO, 1976.

Electric Vehicles: Cumulative Index of EVC Symposia papers, 1969-1980. Washington, DC: Electric Vehicle Council, 1980.

Electric Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1975. Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Energy Research, Development and Demonstration of the Committee on Science and Technology U.S. House of Representatives. 94th Congress first session on H.R. 5470, June 3, 4, 5, 6, 1975. Washington: GPO, 1975.

Fogelberg, Hans. The Electric Car Controversy: A Social-Constructionivist Interpretation of the California Zero-Emission Mandate. Gothenburg, Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.

Greene, James E. An Experimental Evaluation of the Mars II Electric Automobile. Buffalo, NY: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, 1969.

Hackleman, Michael A. Electric Vehicles: Design and Build Your Own. Culver City, CA: Earthmind, 1977.


Hartman, A.W. Controllers for Electric Cars. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1969.

Hamilton, William. Electric Automobiles: Energy, Environmental, and Economic Prospects for the Future. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.

Hamilton, W.F. The Impact of Future Use of Electric Cars in the St. Louis and Philadelphia Regions. Springfield, Virginia: United States Energy Research & Development Administration, 1976.

Hamilton, W. F. Impact of Future Use of Electric Cars in the Los Angeles Region: Executive Summary and Technical Report. Ann Arbor, MI: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.

Hoffman, George A. Automobiles – Today and Tomorrow. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1962.

Hoffman, George A. The Electric Automobile – An Example of Vehicle Systems Design. Los Angeles, CA: Institute of Government and Public Affairs, 1965.

Jones, Clyde R. Convert Your Compact Car to Electric. Northbrook, IL: Domus, 1981.

Lucas, Ted, and Fred Riess. How to Convert to an Electric Car. New York: Crown, 1980.

McKee, Robert S., Boris Borisoff, Frank Lawn, and James F. Norberg. Sundancer: A Test Bed Electric Vehicle. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1972.

Shacket, Sheldon. The Complete Book of Electric Vehicles. Chicago: Domus, 1981.

Shipps, Paul R. Electric Mini-Cars for Urban Driving. San Diego, CA: 3E Vehicles, 1977.

U.S. Department of Energy. Opportunity and Risk Assessment of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976. Washington: GPO, 1978.

U.S. Department of Energy. Vehicle & Hybrid Program. The Second Annual Report to Congress for Fiscal year 1978. Washington: GPO, 1978.

Wakefield, Ernest H. The Consumer’s Electric Car. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science, 1977.

The Auto Radio

Sound systems are one of the most important aspects of today's automobile experience. Yet how many folks know about the history of auto radio, and the rather long and continuous number of improvements that took place since the first radios were installed in automobiles beginning around 1930? What follows is the early history of the auto radio -- a more recent account of the 8 track will follow.

One technology that offered to transform the car into a home-like environment was the radio. Surprisingly, perhaps, there is not one scholarly essay that explores how two dynamic technologies were brought together beginning in the 1920s.Early on, the main technological bottleneck centered on multiple battery power supplies that were compatible with existing tube grid and filament voltage requirements. In 1929, based on the work of William Lear, the Galvin Manufacturing Corporation introduced the first successful car radio, the Motorola Model 5T71.
In November 1929 and in the wake of financial failure, Paul Galvin, the owner of a Chicago radio manufacturing company that made nine tube “private label” sets, decided to make an automobile radio. The first Galvin manufacturing Company radios left something to be desired in terms of convenience and performance. One of the first – credited to Hank Saunders -- although it is likely that Galvin and associate Bill Lear helped design it – was mounted in the rumble seat of a Model A Ford. An Atwater-Kent chassis, it was shielded in the rumble seat from electrical interference caused by the electrical system. Inside the body of the car was a large “B” battery. The antenna was an ingenious modification, employing chicken wire. The chicken wire was normally used on the top of an automobile roof to support a covering of fabric; steel tops were still not commonplace in American automobiles until the mid- 1930s. Isolated from metal body parts, and held in place with laced butchers twine, this chicken wire antenna was connected to the radio by two leads. One early problem was simply the sheer size of the three key components of the early automobile radio – the batteries, the radio itself with its large vacuum tubes and capacitors and resistors, and the loud speaker. The Galvin Radio was introduced at the Radio Manufacturer’s Association of America annual convention in 1930, and a few dealers became interested after seeing demonstrations of Galvin’s crude prototype.
A critical problem that had to be solved was that of tuning and volume control, normally placed on the steering column, and that was solved by the use of flexible, bi-directional shafts. And after a few hundred radios were installed, the notion of hearing radio broadcasts while driving was accepted by consumers. After several early failures, Galvin’s persistence in creating the Motorola radio would make him rich.
A year later, other manufacturers entered the fray; for example, the Crosley Corporation introduced its first car radio, the “Roamio.” In 1932 Mallory and other manufacturers produced several new power supplies, and four years later Ford was the first to install a radio tailor-made for the dashboard. It was claimed that among other advantages, the radio in a car would ensure that one could listen to favorite shows without missing them. “When it’s a quarter before Amos ‘n’ Andy or Lowell Thomas and you’re in the ol’ bus, far, far, from home and radio, is it a tragedy? Or you can tune in right where you are?” Thus the home was again extended to the car. This was also one theme among several that was employed in advertising. For example, a 1934 Philco auto radio ad asserted, “Enjoy Philco in your car . . . as you do at Home! You wouldn’t be without a radio at home – why be without one in your car? Just as a PHILCO brings you the finest radio entertainment in the comfort of your living room, a PHILCO Auto Radio gives you the most enjoyable radio reception in your car."

Contrary to other technologies discussed above that stressed the safety angle, in 1939 psychologist Edward Suchman argued that listening to the radio distracted the driver from the road. Suchman’s applied psychological study was a response to a long-standing criticism of the radio in cars, for when introduced in 1930 several states refused to register vehicles with radios, although apparently this was never enforced.

Automobile History at the National Archives, College Park, MD

Hi Folks -- I spent much of last week working on research projects at the National Archives located in College Park, MD. The fruit of this work will appear on this blog from time to time, as I review the materials I have acquired and begin to interpret it.

First, I looked at and scanned numerous photographs that are in Record Group 306, Records of the U.S. Information Agency. Many of these photographs were New York Times Paris or Berlin Offices -photos taken during the 1930 and 1940s. What I discovered were hundreds of photos on Grand Prix Racing during the golden age of the 1930s and the post-WWII 1940s. Great material if you are interested in that topic. I also used a number of textual sources while visiting the archives.

A major Collection on autos (38 big boxes!) is related to Federal Trade Commission Investigations from the early days of the automobile industry in America to about WWII. These documents include lots of material that one might use in writing business history. There are many, many financial statements, audit reports, tax statements, etc. I wasn't really interested in those documents, but every once and while I could find a gem related to car culture stuck in those boxes. It is Record Group 122, and certainly worth a good review if you are working on the History of General Motors or Chrysler.

I also looked at another collection in RG 151.3 of real value. Namely, there was an office in the Department of Commerce (Automotive Trade Commissioner) between 1929 and 1933 that was involved in matters related to exporting automobiles to Europe. Consequently, it sent agents to Europe to gather as much information as possible about the American industry there, and perhaps just as important, the automobile industries in England, France (very strong material here) and Germany. If you are interested in the European industry before WWII, you must look at these reports, which are numerous and fill four boxes. Everything is there that you might want to know about French marques and the attitude of the Europeans towards American manufacturers and their cars during this time.

More on the archives in the future, especially related to my work on the history of automobile theft during the 1920s and 1930s.

1964 Buick Riviera -- An Auto-Biography

Hi folks,

This week has been a busy one, as I am working on auto history research at the College Park, MD, National Archives. On Wednesday evening, however, I took a break and visited my old friend S.W. "Bill" Leslie, a professor at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore. Bill has taught auto history from time to time, and is well-known for his book, Boss Kettering (Columbia, 1983). Bill reminisced after dinner about his favorite car and the experience he had with it as a young man, fresh out of high school in 1971 -- a blue 1964 Buick Riviera. It was during the summer of 1971 that Bill went to Europe with his grandfather, a WWI veteran who thought that aviation technology had been in decline since 1918. Accordingly, they took a boat across the Atlantic, and the pair also took along grandpa's 1964 Buick Riviera, which was unloaded at Naples. Contrary to one might think about anti-foreign feelings concerning American cars, Bill and his grandfather encountered admiration where ever they went during their European trip. It was almost like two men from Mars had landed in a small rural Italian village! The big Riviera held its own while on the Autobahn, only being flashed to move over a few times by faster cars. In the small towns and villages, however, its large size left no room for anything else.

The 1963-65 production Riviera was unique, It had a cruciform frame similar to the standard Buick frame, but shorter and narrower, with a 2.0 in (51 mm) narrower track. Its 117 in. wheelbase and overall length of 208 in were 6.0 inches and 7.7 in (200 mm) shorter, respectively, than Buick LeSabre., but slightly longer than a contemporary Thunderbird. At 4,190 pounds, it was about 200 pounds lighter than either. It shared the standard 401 or 425 cubic inch Buick V-8s, and the Twin Turbine automatic transmission. Brakes were Buick's standard "Al-Fin" drums.
Inside, the Riviera featured a four-place cabin with front bucket seats separated by a center console with floor shifter and storage compartment that was built into the instrument panel, and bucket-style seats in the rear. Upholstery choices included all-vinyl, cloth and vinyl, or optional leather. Popular extra-cost options included a tilt steering wheel, cruise control, power windows, power seats, air conditioning, AM/FM radio, and wire wheel covers.
The Riviera was introduced in October, 1962, with a base price of $4,333, although typical delivered prices with options ran upwards of $5,000. It was an all-around performer, capable of 0–60 mph in 8 seconds, and a standing quarter mile in about 16 seconds. In 1964 the stylized “R” emblem was introduced, a trademark that would continue throughout the remainder of Riviera's 36-year production run. Under the hood, the 401 was dropped in favor of the 425 cu in with 340 hp. A 'Super Wildcat' version rated at 360 hp was an option, with dual Carter AFB four-barrel carburetors.
Between 1963 and 1965, 112,244 were sold. All in all, the Riviera was extremely well-received and considered a great success, giving the Thunderbird its first real competition. A styling tour de force, it is a collectible classic today.

Bill loved that car, and later, after his grandfather died, he owned it for a time. Of all of his cars, it seems that is the one he would most like to own again in 2009.

British Transportation Museum Car Day, Dayton, Ohio, August 1, 2009

A dash from a 1959 Jaguar XK-150S
My favorite MG -- a MG TF-1500


The Engine from a Morgan
Saturday, August 1, was a big day for British car lovers. Dayton is perhaps an unlikely place for this -- but unlikely occurrences are very much a part of contemporary life. Thus, a huge number of British cars converged on Eastwood Lake Metropark. Sponsored by the British Transportation Museum, also a highly unlikely institution to be located in Dayton, this event was a decided success. The weather was great, swelling the turnout that included vendors and parts swappers. And the cars were luscious.
If you are interested in reading about the history of the British auto industry, send me an email and I will reply with a reading list. Two observations: first, the popularity of these cars is in large part due to the sensual nature of driving cars with no tops and that sound and smell like the cars of yesterday, not today. These cars were in no way appliances. They were to be experienced, maintained, loved, cajoled, whipped, and more. Not anything like a modern Japanese car that runs forever without much more than routine maintenance. Secondly, one wonders if a future generation will experience an American car day, in the case that our industry will ultimately be displaced by the Chinese and who knows others who are cursed or blessed with abundant supplies of cheap and docile labor. I doubt I'll ever see this, but I worry that my daughter and son-in-law might

Kirby's 1965 427 Ford Shelby Cobra

As I have previously mentioned, the Friday night cruise-in in Kettering is remarkable not only for the number of cars, but also for the diversity of vehicles-- hot rods, classics, tuners, pick-ups, motorcycles and the occasional foreign cars. For some time I have noticed a fellow member and tennis player at Five Seasons Sports Club who sometimes arrived in a Bentley. On my way to the cruise-in yesterday I noticed that this same person -- Kirby -- was behind me on I-675, this time in a Cobra! We talked, and I discovered that Kirby, has quite a stable of cars. Perhaps we will get more of them on the blog in the weeks ahead.

During the early 1960s British manufacturer AC Cars produced a small volume, two-seater AC Ace, powered by a Bristol engine that had been designed before WWII. This beautiful car featured a hand built body with a steel tube frame, and aluminum body panels. Bristol decided in 1961 to cease production of its engine, based on a BMW design, and instead to use Chrysler V-8 engines.

In September 1961, Carroll Shelby asked AC whether or not AC could build him a car modified to accept a V8 engine. AC agreed, provided a suitable engine could be found. He first went to Chevrolet to see if they would provide him with engines, but was rejected. Ford however, wanted a car that could compete with the Corvette and they happened to have a brand new thin-wall small-block engine which could be used in this endeavor. It was a 260 cubic inch V-8, tuned for high performance. In January 1962 mechanics at AC Cars installed a 221 cubic inch V- 8 Ford engine into prototype chassis CSX0001. After testing and modification, the engine and transmission were removed and the chassis was air-freighted to Shelby 2 February 1962. His team fitted it with an engine and transmission in less than eight hours and began road-testing.

Production followed without a hitch, since AC had already made most of the modifications needed for the small-block V8, including extensive modifications to the AC Ace's front end. The most important modification was the fitting of a stronger rear differential to handle the increased engine power. A Salisbury 4HU unit with inboard disc brakes was chosen to reduce unsprung weight. It was the same unit used on the Jaguar XKE. On the production version, the inboard brakes were moved outboard to reduce cost. The only modification of the front end of the first Cobra from that of the AC Ace, was the steering box, which had to be moved outward to clear the wider V8 motor.

The first 75 Cobra Mark Is featured a 260 engine. The remaining 51 Mark I models were powered by a larger version of the Windsor Ford engine, the 289. In late 1962 Alan Turner, AC's chief engineer completed a major design change of the car's front end and was able to fit it with rack and pinion steering. The new car entered production in early 1963 and was designated Mark II. The steering rack was borrowed from the MGB while the new steering column came from the VW Beetle. About 528 Mark II Cobras were produced.

By 1963 the small block Cobra was losing its supremacy in racing. Shelby tried fitting a larger 390 cubic inch Ford engine, but it proved to be a failure. Ken Miles drove and raced this version of the Mark II and pronounced the car was virtually undrivable, naming it "The Turd." Consequently, a new chassis was developed and designated Mark III.

The new car was designed in cooperation with Ford. A new chassis was built using 4" main chassis tubes (up from 3") and a coil suspension all around. The new car also had wide fenders and a larger radiator opening. It was powered by the "side oiler" Ford 427. Rated at 425 bhp, this car had a top speed of 163 mph (262 km/h) in the standard model and 485 bhp, and a top speed of 180 mph (290 km/h) in the competition model. Cobra Mark III production began on 1 January 1965; two prototypes had been sent to the United States in October 1964. Cars were sent to the US as unpainted rolling chassis, and they were finished in Shelby's workshop. Although an impressive automobile, the car was a financial failure and did not sell well. In fact to save cost, most AC Cobra 427's were actually fitted with Ford's 428 in³ (7.0 L) engine, a long stroke, smaller bore, lower cost engine, intended for road use rather than racing. Approximately 300 Mark III cars were sent to Shelby between1965 and 1966, including the competition version.. Unfortunately,

The MK III missed homologation for the 1965 racing season and was not raced by the Shelby team. However, it was raced successfully by many privateers and went on to win races all the way into the 70's. Interestingly, 31 unsold competition cars were detuned and made road worthy and called S/C for semi-competition. Today, these are the rarest and the most valuable models and can sell for in excess of 1.5 million dollars.

Although successful in racing, the AC Cobra was a financial failure, and it was discontinued in 1967.

The Cobra made an immediate impact on the American music scene with a hit that made it to #$ on the pop-charts in 1964:

HEY, LITTLE COBRA

(written by Carol Conner)

The Rip-Chords - 1964

Hey, Little Cobra, don't you know 

you're gonna to shut 'em down

I took my Cobra down to the track, 

hitched to the back of my Cadillac,

Everyone was there just a waiting for me

There were plenty of Stingrays and XKEs,

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Hey, Little Cobra, don't you know

you are going to shut them down

When the flag went down, you could hear rubber burn,

The Stingray pulled me going into the turn

I hung a big shift, and I got into high,

When I when I flew by the Stingray, I waved bye bye. 

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Hey, Little Cobra, Don't you know

you are going to shut 'em down

Around the turn into the straight away

I was blowing off everything that got in my way,

Stingrays and Jags were so far behind

I took my Cobra out of gear and let it coast to the line.

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Spring little Cobra getting ready to strike

Spring Little Cobra with all your might

Hey, Little Cobra, Don't you know

you are going to shut 'em down

Shut'em down, shut'em down, shut'em down...

July 31, 2009 Kettering Cruise -In

It was another beautiful night at the Kettering Cruise-In, located off of I-675 Exit 10 in the K-Mart parking lot. And it was a very busy night, so much so that it was extremely difficult to find a parking spot just to walk through the various rows of cars on display. A coupe of cars stood out during my casual walk tonight. First, if you look at the previous blog entry on the 1948 Chevrolet that I first have memories of, you can imagine my surprise to see this evening a black 1948 Chevrolet Fleetline on display. It was about as good as it can get, even equipped with a swamp cooler, perhaps not the most effective way to cool down in a humid climate like that of southwest Ohio. But great for the desert! This terrific car is owned by Ken Koontz of Beavercreek, Ohio.
Getting a bit ahead of myself related to my auto-biography, Bob Bilbo had on display a 1962 Chevrolet Nova 300, again like one that my father owned when I was in junior high school, although this one was painted black, while my family's car was a light sand brown. This is a very original car -- Bob is quite a car guy if one listens to his own list of cars once owned, and cars that got away, now worth far more than a person could imagine 30 years ago when cash was short and more immediate needs had to be met.

Next entry: at the cruise-in, Kirby's 1965 427 Cobra.